Saturday, January 25, 2020
The Nature Of Pastoral Care Theology
The Nature Of Pastoral Care Theology Pastoral care in ministry is one of the most critical ministries found within the Church. Churches are full of individuals who have or are experiencing crisis, anxiety, devoiced, loneliness, lost, grief, sadness, and family issues. These prevailing crises make available to pastors opportunities to assist these individuals mostly by just encouraging and listening to those within their faith community. In many cases, pastors involvement in these crises may only require of them to listen whereas in other the need for trained pastors in specialized ministry of counseling is required. Many individuals now-a-days continue to turn to their pastors as a first source when face with a crisis. Pastors are usually more immediately and directly accessible than some other counseling professionals they do not charge a fee, and they are every so often known and trusted within a community. Since pastors are perceived as generalist, parishioners as well as community residents often look to them for assistance in a wide range of needs, including counseling. A skill acquired by pastors from some useful classes in the area of counseling during their training in seminary as well as an important basic quarter in C.P.E. (Clinical Pastoral Education). Personally, my study in pastoral counseling has given me the necessary tools to effectively counsel my congregants. Such training has led me into the following concepts: Clinical Pastoral Periderm, which focuses on relationship and individuals; the different kinds of Listening Skill introduced by Salvage; the dynamics of Loss Grief with grief being the emotional reaction to loss; Family System Theory a self-regulatory system maintaining its own status, as well as the Family as an Emotional System along with the Eight Concepts of Bowen Theory; Congregational System Pastoral Care; Crisis Counseling which includes the A-B-C Method; Pastoral Issues in Illness; Pastoral for Domestic Violence and Child Abuse; Multi-Cultural Pastoral Care; Gender Difference in Pastoral Care; and finally, Pastoral Intimacy, Power and Professional Boundaries. Pastoral care is the foremost task of ministry by most pastors as well as a majority of congregants, yet, there is a difference relating to pastoral care and the professional discipline of counseling. Some pastors are members of the American Association of Pastoral Counseling which has what one may refer to as an expressed Code of Ethics. The same is true of the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapists, American Psychological Association, etc. There are certainly many potential similarities in the relationship between pastors and professional counselors and the people they serve. All these relationships involve issues of exposure, familiarity and trust. There is an intrinsic disparity of control which some, particularly pastors, is uncomfortable acknowledging, but which exists whenever a person in distress seeks help from one viewed as more experienced. Healing is mostly a main concentration in any aiding relationship. Likewise, borderline concerns must be taken care of so as to construct the safest likely environment in which a counselee or congregant can deal with his or her pain. Nevertheless, there are a number of possible distinctions between pastoral care and professional counseling. Professional counselors are trained to understand the transference and countertransference phenomena, double task tensions, and the boundaries of our trained competency. Like professional counselors, pastors also have codes of conduct to guide our activities, which are spiritual in origin. These codes are based on religious beliefs except for exclusions concerning sexual wrongdoing; pastoral codes usually are more generalized in nature than professional counseling ethical codes of behavior. In contrast to professional counselors, pastors often engage in their ministries in a variety of informal settings with a multiplicity of roles with parishioners. Our core functions as pastors are embedded in a spiritual restraint that touches on many facets of life and society. Although training in counseling can aid pastors to work more effectively with church members, yet our calling to such profession is very distinct. In one of his many writings, Eugene Peterson called on pastors to return to our distinctive, ancient calling which states that our pastoral work is a ministry of Word and Sacrament. [1] People believe counseling is a great remedy. Yet many are reluctant says Hansen to see a professional counselor. Perhaps their reluctance is due to the costs of such visit besides, professional counselors ask hard questions. He continues, For me, trying to be a counselor is a mean of saving time and effort. It is a go between my peoples needs to have me do unspecific things for them rather than cautioning them to live through the thick forests of their lives by following Christ in discipleship. [2] This means that pastoral care is rooted in word and sacrament not having its origins in various scientifically grounded personality theories but prayer, proclamation, and the word of God. Again, Eugene Peterson emphasizes, pastors responsibility is to keep the community attentive to God. [3] Like pastoral care, professional counseling by a pastor is a serious business. Pastors who engage in professional counseling without being trained are treading on dangerous ground, because such is not included within the authority of their ordination. When we do away with what is the ancient activities of pastoral care and engage in professional counseling methods without the necessary training, we are then held to the same standard to that of a licensed counseling professional. Standing before the law, pastors will not have the benefit or protection they have within the ancient practice of pastoral care. Here are several shielding legal guidelines for the practice of ministry: Pastors are to be clear about the expertise offered. We are to refer to our activities in clearly religious terms, not professional counseling terms. Unless we are trained and are willing to adhere to all of the professional standards of licensed professional counselors, pastors are to stay with practices that we can identify as pastoral care. For if we hold ourselves out as professional or psychological counselor, the law of the land will treat us as one. Pastors are not to assume broader duties, which are not part of our competence or calling. Although, the distinction amid pastoral care and professional counseling are clear in many situations, in others they appear less distinct. Yet a process of reflection and discernment is needed most to identify the pastoral role. So the following need to be addressed: Whom am I called to be in this particular ministry setting? What are my sacred functions as one who has a set-apart ministry? What distinguishes my role and relationships from those of psychologists, family therapists, and specialists in pastoral counseling? Where do I set the limits and boundaries to my pastoral activities? [4] Pastoral Care in ministry in my estimate is the most important ministry next to the ministry of preaching of the Gospel. People who are hurting is seeking through the pastor from the Gospel a healing balm for their wounds. The Gospel itself addresses the totality of humanity: spiritual and body. When one part is addressed to the negligence of the other the total needs of that person will not be met. Pastors who are sensitive to, and addresses the hurts of members in their congregation through the appropriate counseling technique, are more likely to be successful in ministry then those who neglect these needs. To conclude, Pastoral care is a vital resource that extends to a broader spectrum of individuals with a variation of needs. This opportunity comes with what I will refer to as a wonderful challenge, however; it is necessary for those ministering to such needs, to reflect wisely on their gifts as well as to recognize their limits of their profession. Bibliography Clinebell, Jr., Howard J. Basic Types of Pastoral Counseling (New York: Abingdon press 1984) Hansen, David The Art of Pastoring ( Inter Varsity Press Downer Grove, Illinois 1994) Paterson, Eugene H. Five Smooth Stones for Pastoral Work (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Grand Rapids, MI 1992) Lynch, Gordon Clinical Counseling in Pastoral Settings ( Routledge New York, NY 1999) Paterson, Eugene H. Working the Angles: The Shape of Pastoral Integrity (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Grand Rapids, MI 1987) Ross, Kenneth. Hearing Confessions (London: SPCK Publishing, 1974) Salvage, John Listening Caring Skills (Abingdon Press, Nashville 1996) An Incident in Ministry that illustrates my Approach to Pastoral Care Luke and Nancy was the first inter-racial couple that sought membership at my present pastoral appointment, Spencer Memorial United Methodist Church. For eight years of being their pastor, I have watched them grow diligently in their spiritual walk with the Lord, but something always seems to be lacking within their relationship especially around the Thanksgiving holiday, something that they couldnt get around to talk about but was bothering them. On one Wednesday after Bible Study Nancy asked if she could schedule an appointment so that she could meet with me. Sure I responded to her, so we went ahead and set an appointment to meet an hour earlier on the next Wednesday before Bible Study. When we met following prayers on that Wednesday, Nancy begins by saying that they came to see me to discuss about the death of her father which loss she cannot seem to get rid of. The presenting problem is one in which Nancys father passed away almost immediately when she became a member of Spencer. This occurred rather suddenly after her father was diagnosed of cancer. When word reached her that her father was terminal and the doctors have given him up, she immediately went to be with her mother to assist her while they prepared for the inevitable. Two weeks later after her arrival on Thanksgiving Day, her father passed away leaving her with a sudden stricken grief that after seven years she is finding it very difficult to dealing with her feeling of loss. Recently Nancy went back home to visit her mother because her visit back home had been infrequent since her father passed away. During her visit she was beset with her feelings of loss and now she tells me that she it has been such a long since the death of her father but the pain do not seem to go away. She and her father became close after a long period of estrangement between them and she describes their relationship developing over the years into more unique friendship than that of father and daughter. She tells me that the mode of her grief varies from day to day. On those days when she is so stressed up, she feels the pain of her loss strongly especially when she cannot pick up the phone and dial her father; for her father had grown to become her best friend in spite of their past history and he had been there for her over the last few years of his life. During this whole session, Nancy pattern of speech appears normal yet she wept throughout it. But what was helpful is that we kept good eye contact during our discussion until she became emotional which minimize it. Below are statements showing that during one point of the session empathy was for the most part effective: Nancy: I guess this may sound crazy, but this past Thanksgiving, I went home and my Mom was able to convince me so that we can get rid of his clothes. Something that I said out loud to Mom that we were never ever going to get rid of his clothes because it was the only physical memory that I had of him. On Thanksgiving Day while going through his closet I could smell his distinct cologne (Kouros) on his clothes. It was too difficult; I broke down in the closet crying. Pastor: I know that it must have been hard for you, because I also lost my father to sudden stroke. Nancy: Pastor Morris, it was the hardest thing for me to do. Pastor: It takes a lot of strength to carry that through. Nancy: You can say that, it does. I break down whenever I begin to talk about him. Pastor: You miss him Nancy: Yes Pastor, I miss him so much (she begins to openly sob). Nancy was referring to the feelings of her loss that never seems to go away after seven years. My intent during this session was to reflect on those feelings. In addition, she was critical of herself in the early part of our session for not having moved beyond her feelings of loss. At this point in the session, I became aware of how much she was hurting. It is very important that pastoral wisdom include some general knowledge of grief and mourning process that is informed by those who have done researched and written about it. One of the most influential interpretations of the grief process for me has been Erich Lindemanns study called Symptomatology and Management of Acute Grief, [5] in it he affirmed grief as work, something necessary for life rather than something pathological that should be avoided. He also described five things that he had observed in acute grief: (1) guilt, (2) anger, (3) bodily distress, (4) being preoccupy with the deceased image and, (5) loss of customary of patterns of conduct. [6] Lindermann theorized that there are discernible stages in the grief process that the grieving person and those who care for that person should be aware of. Recently when Nancy visited her parent home she was overwhelmed with renewed emotions of loss, perhaps as new as they were seven years ago when her father passed away. Furthermore, she expressed her frustration in still undergoing such strong feeling of grief when so much time has passed. This displeasure could be viewed as her inclination to move in an affirmative direction toward healing, and it was her self-actualizing tendency that was seeking to express it. A likely hypothesis as to why Nancy has not moved past her present stage of grief might be that in her societal system the essential conditions that would allow her to discover the know-how in order to process her grief does not exist. She may also have family members in her family that deal with pain differently by discouraging open expression of emotions. If such be the case, then providing empathy might permit her to move past most of the pain that she was experiencing. The below example shows during the session, where the grief focus was shifted: Nancy: I was in denial when the news first hit me that my father was terminal. I got on the next available flight for Dallas. I went down immediately to be with him. Two weeks after my arrival he passed away. Pastor: That was fast. And it seems that you possess lots of pleasant memories of your father Nancy: Yes I do have a lot of good memories, but the hardest thing is the emptiness brought about by the loss. In this example, she described her experience of losing her father. In response, I attempted to direct her focus on the good memories that she had of her father, rather than she dwelling on her loss. However, it seems to me that her focus was on her feelings of emptiness; it was when I regain control of the situation and saidà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Pastor: Nancy, as a pastoral counselor, I certainly am open to the grieving process for those who had lost a loved one but not for such a long period. However, I must honestly say that there is more to the grief that you are undergoing. Even though you have not explain what brought about your estrangement with your parents which may have something to do with prolonged grief. Nancy: (Sobbing againà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) you are right pastor. 17 years ago after falling in love with Luke in College I took him to ask for my parents blessing because we had decided to get married since we were three months pregnant. Not telling them that he is an African American, we drove to my home time in Dallas Texas during our Christmas break. When we arrived, my parents did not receive Luke and forbid me to get marry to him. Because we love each other and were caring a child I went against their decision and got married to Luke thus being banished or ostracized by my parents. In view of this new revelation, I decided to reference the family- systems theory which offers better ways to understand and resolve such problem. For instance: From a Bowenian family-systems perspective, there have been some key emotional cutoffs [7] in Nancy family system when she was banished. Its not entirely clear how these things work, but family-therapy research indicates that Nancy present dilemma is somehow connected to this cutoff; moreover, it is only by repairing it and reconnecting with the long-lost, left-behind, and thrown-out members of her family that her presenting problem [8] will resolve itself. Therefore, one aspect of a treatment plan recommended would involve my counseling her toward a self-differentiated [9] balance between these two extremes (guilt and grief). Finally, Nancy realized that her prolonged grief was because of her guilt after shifting her guilt back and fro. [10] I believe my ability to provide empathy [11] through reflection was my strength. What was of greater substance was my ability to offer advanced empathy, moving away from her stated words to the indirect emotions beyond her words.
Friday, January 17, 2020
Alexander Pope’s poem The Rape of the Lock Essay
There are several aspects to Alexander Pope’s poem, The Rape of the Lock which cement it as a unique and important work. Not only do Pope’s use of imagery and other literary tools create a landscape of the world which is represented here, but Pope also creates the feeling of total emersion into the story for the reader.            There are also many individual issues, within the work itself, which utilize their social standing to create emotion for the reader, such as the consumption of drugs throughout The Rape of the Lock. This creates an emotional bond with between the reader and the character within the poem by forcing the reader to make judgments on the characters. This judgment, then, becomes part of the reader’s vision of the world Pope created within the poem.            While the poem itself was called to be written by Pope’s close friend, to end the feud between two families, what Pope succeeds in creating was an epic of lust, debauchery and social posturing. This tale, spun by Alexander Pope, seems just as much a condemnation of the social stratification of his era, as it is a plea for well-born families to put aside their petty squabbles. The events leading up to the writing of the poem, as explained by Pope were:            The stealing of Miss Belle Fermor’s hair, was taken too seriously, and caused an             estrangement between the two families, though they had lived so long in great friendship      before. A common acquaintance and well    wisher to both desired me to write a poem to              make a jest of it, and laugh them together again. It was with   this view that I wrote the Rape of the Lock. (Pope) This partly explains the use of the term â€Å"Rape†in the title. The use of such a strong word to describe such an inane event illustrates Alexander Pope’s fondness of parody – as well as his ability to illustrate the strange and often humorous idiosyncrasies of the wealthy elite.            As Pope begins his five act poem, his first line both questions and accuses the parties involved in the rivalry by asking what â€Å"trivial things†could have been seen as such a â€Å"dire Offence†. The assault which is spoken of by Pope in this first canto is described as being committed by a â€Å"well-bred Lord†upon a â€Å"gentle Belle†. This assault is also questioned, in that Pope asked how a â€Å"Belle†could refuse the advances of such a well-born man. It is the assumption, from this early exchange, that it was socially expected that these two individuals, most certainly due to their social standing, would have no choice but to form a physical union – completely ignoring any personal choice in the matter.            Throughout the first canto, there are several examples of instances where Pope created a strange sense of reality through his use of word choice and order. Calling to attention the vision of a â€Å"birth-night beau†, a very festive and happy image, Pope juxtaposes the idea of non-consensual relations and enters into a dream-state. The allusions that Pope creates here are a very white and pure scene. The use of imagery such as the slippers, â€Å"silver sound†, and Belinda laying her head against her â€Å"downy pillow†creates a setting of safety and warmth.            In line twenty four of the first canto, the poem begins to take on a decidedly fantastic feel. This is used to create the sense that Belinda is truly a slothful person. As she arises at noon, the reader is told that she returns to sleep – creating a sense of an unpressured and possibly spoiled girl with no responsibilities.            The dreams of Belinda are also illustrated here. Pope mentions several types of fantastic characters in this section which illustrate the unrealistic world Belinda inhabits. The angels and elves which Pope mentions number in the thousands – and through them, illustrate the mental age of Belinda – that of a child. These creatures also set up the meaning of the first canto, the warning of Belinda.            In the clear Mirror of thy ruling Star I saw, alas! some dread Event impend, E’re to the Main this Morning Sun descend. But Heav’n reveals not what, or how, or where: Warn’d by thy Sylph, oh Pious Maid beware! This to disclose is all thy Guardian can. Beware of all, but most beware of Man! (Pope 1.108-114) This warning shows the reader, in Pope’s mock-epic style, that some sort of tragedy is about to unfold for Belinda.            This fantastical illustration continues through the end of the first canto. Pope uses the personification of the items in Belinda’s room to create the creatures which she sees through her dreams. Line 135 is a perfect example of this as Pope writes: â€Å"The Tortoise here and Elephant unite, / Transform’d to Combs†. It is obvious to the reader that Pope is describing a tortoise shell and ivory comb. However, in the dream world of Belinda, this object is represented by its literal components before losing this personification and becoming a tool to create Belinda’s physical beauty.            The second canto is used to by Pope to illustrate the importance of hair to the physical beauty of Belinda. Her majestic persona is described by Pope in order to place a heavy weight on the locks of hair she will eventually lose to the impetuous Lord.            Pope exaggerates Belinda’s physical attractiveness and the attractiveness of her jewelry as well. Though she is surrounded by many well presented youths, all adorned in splendor, â€Å"ev’ry Eye was fix’d on her alone†(Pope 2.6) Her physical beauty, as Pope describes it, is accentuated by the cross around her neck – which was so spectacular that â€Å"Jews might kiss, and Infidels adore†. (2.8) The power of a piece of jewelry to overcome religious conviction is very unlikely, however, for Pope, this is a perfect way to illustrate the perceived power of high social standing of the wealthy elite. For the members of the elite families of England, the importance of visual presentation cannot be over-stated, not even when compared to religion. Though the symbol she wears is a Christian icon, its beauty – both from its construction and the fact that it is being worn by a young girl of such attractiveness as Belinda, it could seemingly convert Jews and heathens from their chosen dogmas.            It is also in canto two that the Baron, who will perpetrate the rape of the lock, is introduced. Lines twenty nine and thirty of the second canto reads: â€Å"Th’ Adventrous Baron the bright Locks admir’d, / He saw, he wish’d, and to the Prize aspir’d†. This introduction of the Lord creates an interesting situation for the reader. Despite the several dozen lines of text which describe the beauty of Belinda’s clothing, jewelry as well as her physical features, it is the locks of hair that hang against her neck which the Baron first sets eyes upon, and subsequently longs for.            The first feelings of the Baron are shown to be violent in nature.            Resolv’d to win, he meditates the way,                By Force to ravish, or by Fraud betray;                For when Success a Lover’s Toil attends,                Few ask, if Fraud or Force attain’d his Ends.                (2.31-34) This illustration of the man’s intent shows the reader that the Baron does not visualize the hair on Belinda as a part of Belinda – if he recognizes Belinda at all. The hair that hangs on her neck, however, is instantly revered as a stately prize.            It is also through this section that the locks of hair are given a sexual persona. At no time does the Baron speak, or think of Belinda as a source of joy, but rather her hair as an all encompassing quest. The immediacy of the Baron’s passion for the locks of Belinda’s hair illustrates a very important aspect of his personality – the trophy is more important than the conquest. It is the intent of the Baron to display the locks of hair, as one would display a commendation. The locks of would signify the physical conquest of the beauty of Belinda – whether or not that conquest ever actually occurred.            The signification given to the locks of hair on Belinda’s head is that of her chastity. By removing them, the Baron, in so much as it was seen in the times, had given Belinda the equivalent of a badge of promiscuity. The path through which the Baron achieves his goal, is illustrated through a card game. though this game is seemingly innocuous, it symbolizes to very distinct and overt actions – the first being war, with the direct imagery within the poem, and the other being sex, by the eventual winning of the locks of chastity by the Baron.            The victory of the card game enables the Baron to cut the locks of hair from Belinda’s head. This action, keeping with the tone of the title of the poem, is illustrated violently – though the reality of the action was certainly far less extraordinary.            The Peer now spreads the glitt’ring Forfex wide,                T’inclose the Lock; now joins it, to divide.                Ev’n then, before the fatal Engine clos’d,                A wretched Sylph too fondly interpos’d;                Fate urg’d the Sheers, and cut the Sylph in twain,                (But Airy Substance soon unites again)                The meeting Points that sacred Hair dissever                From the fair Head, for ever and for ever!                (3.147-154) The words used by Pope in this stanza are undoubtedly violent. Though the Baron is removing the hair with the pressured permission of Belinda, Pope chooses to paint this scene as though the Baron was attacking her, killing her, and/or ravaging her body. Pope also uses strange images to create the picture in the reader’s mind. Line 148 states that the scissors were closed around the hair, cutting it; however, the language chosen by Pope creates the image of both conjunction and disjunction.            This stanza is followed by:            Then flash’d the living Lightnings from her Eyes,                And Screams of Horror rend th’ affrighted Skies.                Not louder Shrieks to pitying Heav’n are cast,                When Husbands or when Lap-dogs breath their last,                Or when rich China Vessels, fal’n from high,                In glittring Dust and painted Fragments lie!                (3.155-160) This violence that is being spoken of here, as intended by Pope, creates the feeling of murder, and military conquest. The emotions that Pope takes advantage of here, are for the express purpose of illustrating the over-exaggerated weight placed in the locks of hair. This scene is intentionally written so violently, as to show the reader that the members of this social stratum have little understanding of the true importance of things – such as locks of hair.            Throughout canto four, Pope makes several allusions to the act of torture. It is the intent of these lines to show the reader that the taking of the locks of hair, for Belinda, however insignificant as they may truly be, was a painful and violating event. Meanwhile, the Baron, himself, calls into question the validity of the social significance of the hair: â€Å"While the Fops envy, and the Ladies stare! / Honour forbid! at whose unrival’d Shrine / Ease, Pleasure, Virtue, All, our Sex resign†. (4.104-107)            The remainder of the poem, for Pope, further illustrates the illogical amount of importance placed on the loss of Belinda’s hair. The insistence that â€Å"Fate and Jove†where in the audience of this event, illustrates for the reader that the society which Pope is lampooning here feels that the Christian God and the pagan gods would be affronted by witnessing such a horrible action. Pope also suggests that the loss of Belinda’s locks would be of such great importance to the surrounding women in her life that their own lives would come to a halt – â€Å"For who cam move when fair Belinda fails?†(5.4)            Pope offers no redemption for the couple, or the society they inhabit. By line ninety-four of the fifth canto, Belinda and the Baron engage in actual combat. Pope uses this fight to further illustrate the complexity of this society’s skewed priorities.             Now meet thy Fate, incens’d Belinda cry’d,                And drew a deadly Bodkin from her Side.                (The same, his ancient Personage to deck,                Her great great Grandsire wore about his Neck                In three Seal-Rings which after, melted down,                Form’d a vast Buckle for his Widow’s Gown:                Her infant Grandame’s Whistle next it grew,                The Bells she gingled, and the Whistle blew;                Then in a Bodkin grac’d her Mother’s Hairs,                Which long she wore, and now Belinda wears.)                (5.86-96) The fact that the petite and beautiful Belinda pulls a blade from her side, and attacks the Baron with it, is against the idea of the age – where men are the fighters and women are weak in and in need of protection.            This attack by the young maiden is followed by the powerful Baron’s begging for his life – â€Å"ah, let me survive†. (5.101) This, again, goes against the expectations of the reader, creating a setting of irrationality. These actions by Pope to create this skewed reality, are effective in forcing the reader to see the entire world of The Rape of the Lock as improbable.            Throughout the poem, Pope utilizes the tools of the ancient epic poems to create a sense of importance and truth to the work. Just as Homer had with his Iliad, Pope creates a tale of heroic and historical importance. However, this is simply a ploy to expose the utter lack of importance of the issue at hand. The entirety of the poem is an exaggeration of the expectations of the reader, and their knowledge of history and poetic license.            The complexity of Pope’s couplet rhyming as well as the loose iambic lines, suggest that the work is meant to be seen just as the historical epics had been. However, the use of exaggerated metaphors and unlikely situations confront that sense of importance – and overpower it. The voice that Pope uses throughout the poem allows the reader to feel at ease with the untrustworthiness of the narrator.            It was the intent of Alexander Pope to illustrate a situation in which a ludicrous amount of importance was placed on a fairly insignificant object – hair. Though the fact is never revealed within the poem, hair regrows naturally. This means that regardless of the taking of the hair by the Baron, given ample time, the hair would be replaced and the event completely forgotten. However, as with the strain between the two families for which Pope was inspired to write about, the event was seen as somewhat of a major catastrophe. WORKS CITED Pope, Alexander. The Rape of the Lock. University of Massachusetts. Date of access: April 27, 2007. URL: http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~sconstan/index.html
Thursday, January 9, 2020
Essay on Jewish Philosophers on Reason and Revelation
Jewish Philosophers on Reason and Revelation Footnotes are Misssing ABSTRACT: Are reason and revelation different sources of truth? Do they contradict or complement each other? The present essay tries to give an answer to these ancient questions from a Jewish pluralistic point of view. I describe the essential views of the most important representatives of the two main schools of Jewish thought: the rationalists Maimonides, Moses Mendelssohn, and Hermann Cohen, and the antirationalists Judah Halevi and Solomon Levi Steinheim. I show that even the antirationalists use the tools of rationalism, by which Talmudic-rabbinic thought is characterized, in an attempt to show that they are not irrationalists. The comparison of this attitude†¦show more content†¦Hegel, though agreeing with the necessity of both approaches, emphasizes the decisive role of philosophy, because according to him the absolute spirit reaches its highest level only in the pure form of thought, while religion is the presentation of spirit as mere feeling. As opposed to these tw o thinkers, who hold that religion and philosophy are two independently legitimate ways of recognizing truth, there are other philosophers (such as Thomas Aquinas), who are of the opinion that philosophy can only prove certain principles while other principles can only be proven by revelation. And finally there are those thinkers who espouse a complete dichotomy between the theological and philosophical approches. Theologians like Karl Barth, Schleiermacher and others speak about the priority of belief, while philosophers like Kant and others speek about that of reason.(1) Our main question is if reason is capable of making decisive statements in the mundus sensibilis ac intelligibilis. Perhaps our faculty of reason can only be used in the realm of the mundus sensibilis, as Kant holds, and as a result the metaphysical world is left to our beliefs.(2) Or may be, we should leave this Kantian notion after Feuerbach and Nietzsche and accept Wittgensteins advice to keep silent about matters which we cannot comprehend? The Rationalistic School In order to attempt at giving an answer to the aforementioned questions, I now turn to theShow MoreRelatedThe Age Of Reason By Judaism1449 Words  | 6 PagesDuring the â€Å"Age of Reason†, Judaism was forced to re-evaluate its core values in response to acculturation and assimilation. The question of emancipation and participation in their new countries brought the Jewish community to a crossroads as they had to determine how far they would veer away from their Jewish values in efforts to fit into the new societies. Jewish philosophers were forced to offer options to the different sects of Judaism that correspond with those sects core values and ethicsRead MoreComparing Christianity, Judaism, and Islam Essay1364 Words  | 6 Pagescalled the Prophet. One who practices Islam is a Muslim. Muslims follow the Koran, the written revelation brought by Muhammad. The Muslim world population is estimated at more than 1 billion. Islam is the quickest growing religion. Judaism is one of the worlds oldest religious traditions. Pre-modern Judaism constituted (and traditional Judaism today constitutes) an integrated cultural system of Jewish law, custom, and practice encompassing the totality of individual and communal existence. 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It would be interesting to know why many philosophers are drawn to Christian in order to get a meaningful solution to their philosophical problem rather than they could have found in philosophy as such. To understand betterRead MoreUse Of The Greek Word Logos951 Words  | 4 Pagesused to include any information given by the senses, and the underlying principle that related objects to each other in a sort of universal law. However, for other philosophers the word could be used in different ways. For instance, Parmenides used the word to express pure thought apart from the 1 senses. The Stoic philosophers used the term in a very different way, giving it the meaning of rhetorical and argumentative ability for an individual. By the third century the term began to alsoRead MoreJesus : The God Of God1408 Words  | 6 Pages MESSIAHSHIP OF JESUS There have been many ways in which people have called Jesus: a prophet, a priest, an impostor, a holy man, a master, a philosopher, The Christ, the Son of God, etc. but the true meaning behind His name will only be determined by the faith and revelation. Scholars on this subject have tried to search the truth among the Scriptures, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and other canonic books. One thing that it is found in common is the coming of a messiah, a chosen man by God who will changeRead MoreChristianity, A Form Of Religion Based On The Person And Teachings950 Words  | 4 Pagesthroughout the world. Many religions detested this and others embraced it. Some based their teaching s on pure science and questioned every living thing as a question to an unsolved experiment. Although some people didn t understand the being and the reason for the outcome they still believed that there s was God out there that created their existence. Christianity first started with the base of Judaism. Judaism was the primarily religion for the Israelites before Christianity set forth. ChristianityRead MoreScholasticism776 Words  | 4 Pagestheological and philosophical movement that tried to use the classical Greco-Roman philosophy to understand the religious revelation of Christianity. It was the dominant theological and philosophical thought of medieval times, after the patristic thinking of late antiquity. It was based on the coordination between faith and reason, with the established assumption that reason was subordinate to faith. It dominated in the cathedral schools and general studies leading to medieval European universitiesRead MoreBuddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism And Monotheistic Religions1108 Words  | 5 Pagesand Judaism the importance of conducts and worship will lead you to paradise in the after as promised by Allah or Yahweh. The teachings of proper behavior, edict, ethics and conduct are also part of the teachings of Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher. Redeveloping the self, according to the founders of Buddhism and Christianity, will lead to your spiritual enlightenment and Salvation. Enlightenment is also present in Hinduism. Pursuing Dharma leads mankind to the path of happiness, pleasureRead MoreMy Point Of View 20th Century1110 Words  | 5 PagesEuropean Imperialism in Africa and Asia. Second World War 1 it was directly triggered by the assassination of Austrian archduke, Franz and his wife. And third the Russia Revolution is the revelation that had 2 parts the February revolut ion was essentially a bread riot that spiraled out of control. And October revelation was much more organized affair. B. Religion has lots of meanings it depends on the person how he or she thinks.in my opinion religion is a word means truth or peace believing in one god
Wednesday, January 1, 2020
Math Anxiety And Math Motivation - 1555 Words
A group of nine researchers from various universities across the United States worked together to create a study that tested the effects of math anxiety and math motivation on the level of math learning that an individual is capable of. The main discovery of their research showed that young adolescent twins and adult college students showed inverted U-relations between math anxiety and math performance when subjects had high intrinsic math motivation (Wang et al. 2015). There were negative associations between math anxiety and math performance when they had low intrinsic math motivation (Wang et al. 2015). To guide their research, the experimenters followed two different aims involving the variables of math anxiety and math motivation.†¦show more content†¦2015). The researchers conducted two separate studies, one with pairs of same-sex twins and another with college students from The Ohio State University. In the first study, they used 262 pairs of twins of which 58% were f emale and 42% male. The individuals were, on average, 12.25 years old and ranged anywhere between 8.75 and 15.33 years old. Of the twins who participated, 91% were white, 5% were African American, and 2% were Asian. Researchers also included the levels of parental education of the twins. Range of education in the parents consisted of 20% postgraduate work, 42% bachelor’s degree, 16% some college education, and 10% with a high school education or less. The same study was repeated with 237 students from The Ohio State University of which 56% female and 44% male. These students were on average 19.53 years old and ranged from 18 to 39 years old. Before they conducted any of the tests on math performance, researchers collect data on individual levels of math anxiety, general anxiety, and math motivation. Math anxiety levels were collected using the revised Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale for elementary students (MARS-E) which is a 5-point Likert scale (1= not nervous at all and 5 =very nervous). General anxiety levels (not involving math) were measured using the Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (1=never and 4=always), and math motivation was measured using a scale developed by M.M. ChiuShow MoreRelatedWhy Math Is Not Be A Math Test Or Exam?983 Words  | 4 PagesMath is a subject where a person can both understand a concept and do well on tests and exams, or they do not understand a concept and they do mediocre at best, or if they are women, try to prove they can do math just as well as men to a point where they fail. Women are seen as stereotypically inferior to men when it comes to math. This stereotype does not ring true, since women are capable of understanding concepts just as well as men. Although, this stereotype does still haunt women whenever theyRead MoreBehavioral And Contextual Factors That Affect The Females And Minority Students Career Choices Essay1557 Words  | 7 Pagesexpectancy-value theory. This theory maintains that achievem ent behaviors are the product of an individual’s expectations for success and the perceived value of the behavior (Else-Quest et all, 2013). Stereotype threats about the affected adolescence’s math and science abilities are transmitted by their parents and teachers which leads to negative attitudes being shaped and these beliefs shaping the performance and overall interest in STEM fields. It is the environmental cues which make the negative stereotypesRead MoreA Meritocratic Society Essay1405 Words  | 6 Pagesstereotype, which had a higher rate of females in science field. This gender stereotype often brings about a low self-efficacy and self-doubt that many women find when it came to science and STEM fields as a degree. Low self-efficacy often combines with anxiety and in turn breeds self-doubt. Many academics believe, that both genders are just as capable at mathematics, with research showing very little differences in cognitive numeracy skills. Broadley (2015) asserts that it isn’t that females are unableRead MoreInstructional Design Essay1222 Words  | 5 PagesProblem-Based Learning must be based on cooperative learning, critical thinking and good communication. Students who have mastered those skills required by the Standards are not difficult to detect. They often demonstrate feelings of excitement and motivation in the subject. Second, continuous formative assessments such as quizzes, role plays and simulation exercises enables me to identify areas of weakness and immediate solutions. Summative assessments also demonstrate competence levels by the schoolRead MoreImproving Self Esteem : Sixth Grade Math Through Goal Setting1911 Words  | 8 PagesMale Self-Esteem in Seventh Grade Math Through Goal Setting Weston Steinberg Instructor: Dr. Chris Deeter A Research Report Presented to The Graduate Program in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Masters in Education Concordia University - Portland 2014Strengthening Math Esteem in Seventh Grade Through Goal Setting This action research is about discovering if goal setting helps improve self-esteem for males in the seventh grade math classroom. Actions will be takenRead MoreEssay on EDA 577 Develop Goals867 Words  | 4 Pagestraining for teachers based on best practices and test taking strategies to be used by students. Goals: (See Figure 1.1) The results of the 2014 STAAR test demonstrates a need for improvement in 4th grade writing, 3rd grade reading and math, and 5th grade reading and math subjects. Resources: Journeys Reading Program (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt), Empowering Writers (J. Mariconda), Pearson Envision, Campus Reading Coach, Campus Dean of Instruction, STAAR Workbooks (varies by grade level) Target Barriers:Read MoreRole Of Academic Self Efficiency On The Relation Between Task Importance And Test Anxiety1552 Words  | 7 PagesResearch Article Assignment Test Anxiety Role of academic self-efficiency in moderating the relation between task importance and test anxiety. Citation in APA Format: Nie, Y., Lau, S., Liau, A. K. (2011). Role of academic self-efficiency in moderationg the relation between task importance and test anxiety. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(6), 736-741. Purpose of the study: The purpose of the study was to provide information about potential ways to reduce test anxiety; whether academic self-efficiencyRead MoreThe Threat of a Stereotype1383 Words  | 6 Pagesseveral reasons as to explain why stereotype threat occurs. Anxiety increases when there is a fear of confirming a negative stereotype and this results with poor performance. Another mechanism is impaired divided attention where attention is given to the negative stereotype and not to the task at hand. Sometimes individuals worry about what others may think leading them to approach tests cautiously with smaller success. Lack of motivation, little effort and lower self-expectation are some of the resultsRead More The Fairness Of Academic Evaluation Essay1218 Words  | 5 Pages But after years of memorization and drills, what were once intellectually excited and motivated five-year-olds have become bored or grade-obsessed teenagers. Their thrill over accomplishing real tasks and exhibiting real skills is replaced with anxiety over upcoming tests and a concern for high grades. By giving the exams such importance, they are stripping the classrooms of all of the freedom of learning and encouraging the students to focus, not on what they want to learn, but what they have toRead MoreReview of Social Psychology Book by Claude Steele1468 Words  | 6 Pagesaffecting the intellectual performance is a general phenomenon that can affect anyone depending on whom the situation invokes. (p. 86) High-performing white male students, under the stereotype threat of another group’s – Asian Americans’–superiority in math, performed much worse than white students who were told nothing about the test. The situational impact of stereotype threat was powerful enough for white students to internalize self-doubts arising from the group’s relative inferiority. (p.91-92)
Monday, December 23, 2019
Morality Inside Of The Field Of Criminal Equity - 848 Words
In this paper I m going to talk about the hypotheses identified with morals inside of the field of criminal equity. The main way I will do this is by clarify in detail the dangerous slant and its relationship to tips, utilizing cases. Second I will talk about Theories in regards to open defilement and how police debasement creates has turned into an issue as the years progressed. There are three noteworthy speculations with respect to open defilement: society-everywhere theory, basic or association speculation, and spoiled apple speculation. Each of these hypotheses gives an alternate look as to police defilement. The theories are Society-at-Large Hypothesis, Structural or Affiliation Hypothesis and The Rotten Apple Hypothesis. With a specific end goal to better clarify these speculations I will give two believable illustrations to each of them. To begin off I will clarify in detail the dangerous slant and its relationship to tips, utilizing illustrations. The meaning of tricky incli ne is a thought or game plan which will prompt something unsuitable, wrong, or grievous. In today s general public numerous individuals will attempt to do whatever it takes including individual favors to pick up or to advance beyond the diversion. A considerable measure of times this is found in legislative issues and even law implementation. So the genuine inquiry is when does it turn out to be wrong for an officer to acknowledge tips? Case in point tips can come in numerousShow MoreRelatedNormality and Coercion: Plato, Aristotle, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, and Rawls3749 Words  | 15 Pagesof rules by the ruling power. Austin’s Command Theory: law is a command of the sovereign obliging them to a course of conduct. Bentham: An assemblage of signs, expressions of subjective will. If human laws conflict with fundamental principles of morality, they are still laws that which directly or indirectly attributable to the sovereign or the ruling power is the source of law. Sociological School: Law consists of and can be found in the regularized conduct or actual patterns of behavior in aRead MoreDoes Cedaw Make World Better Place For Women? Essay7028 Words  | 29 Pagesexercise of all rights on a basis of equality with men in real terms. Because of existing inequality, laws policies and programmes may have to be different for women and men so that equality of outcomes could be achieved. Substantive equality includes equity. Fundamental Premises of the Women’s Convention CEDAW is not based on an abstract concept of gender equality. The need for this Convention, as well as its title, reflects the international community’s recognition that discrimination against womenRead More50 Harmful Effects of Genetically Modified (Gm) Foods14312 Words  | 58 Pagescommercialization. Since then thousands of applications for experimental genetically-modified (GM) organisms, including quite bizarre GMOs, have been filed with the US Patent Office alone, and many more abroad. Furthermore an economic war broke out to own equity in firms that legally claimed such patent rights or the means to control not only genetically modified organisms but vast reaches of human food supplies. This has been the behind-the-scenes and key factor for some of the largest and rapid agri-chemicalRead MoreImpact of Socio-Economic and Cultural Changes on the Personality Development of Adolescents8858 Words  | 36 Pagesethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (political, rel igious) values, social values, aesthetic values etc. 8. Moral Values. Moral values are held to be right or wrong or desirable or undesirable. Morality is sometimes described as innate in humans. But in the scientific view a capacity for morality is genetically determined in us, but the set of moral values is acquired through example, teaching, and imprinting from parents and society. Different cultures have very different moral values. MoralRead MoreSports17369 Words  | 70 Pagesas suggested, you should enjoy Exercise 5.6, â€Å"The Brent Musburger Drinking Game† another way to monitor sportscasterspeak. There actually are a number of fun exercises here, as you will see. In terms of the practicum, you are asked to consider the field of sports journalism, examine sports clichà ©s, construct a resume, analyze your voice, and actually practice sportscasting. As in anything else, the more you are willing to try these various activities, the more it will help you in the long run. ThisRead MoreSports17363 Words  | 70 Pagesas suggested, you should enjoy Exercise 5.6, â€Å"The Brent Musburger Drinking Game† another way to monitor sportscasterspeak. There actually are a number of fun exercises here, as you will see. In terms of the practicum, you are asked to consider the field of sports journalism, examine sports clichà ©s, construct a resume, analyze your voice, and actually practice sportscasting. As in anything else, the more you are willing to try these various activities, the more it will help you in the long run. ThisRead MoreMerger and Acquisition: Current Issues115629 Words  | 463 PagesPatents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this wor k in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, BasingstokeRead MorePeculiarities of Euphemisms in English and Difficulties in Their Translation19488 Words  | 78 Pagesof humanity. The objective of the work is an attempt to study all the aspects of euphemisms and doubletalk, the cases of their usage and to analyze the frequency and variability of euphemisms and double talk usage referring to different social fields in various sources. To achieve the set aim we determined the following tasks: - to search the origin of euphemisms ; - to study the problem of euphemisms; - to understand the aim of the modern usage of euphemisms; - to distinguishRead MoreInternational Management67196 Words  | 269 Pagesfollowing chapter distribution: environment (three chapters), culture (four chapters), strategy (four chapters), and organizational behavior/human resource management (three chapters). Because international management is such a dramatically changing field, all the chapters have been updated and improved. New real-world examples and research results are integrated throughout the book, accentuating the experiential relevance of the straightforward content. As always, we emphasize a balance of researchRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words  | 1573 PagesManagement Roles 6 †¢ Management Skills 8 †¢ Effective versus Successful Managerial Activities 8 †¢ A Review of the Manager’s Job 9 Enter Organizational Behavior 10 Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study 11 Disciplines That Contri bute to the OB Field 13 Psychology 14 †¢ Social Psychology 14 †¢ Sociology 14 †¢ Anthropology 14 There Are Few Absolutes in OB 14 Challenges and Opportunities for OB 15 Responding to Economic Pressures 15 †¢ Responding to Globalization 16 †¢ Managing Workforce Diversity 18
Sunday, December 15, 2019
The Nature and Status of Folk Psychology Free Essays
The nature and status of Folk Psychology (UP) In philosophy circles is controversial. In this essay I shall begin by briefly defining what folk psychology Is. Followed by an outline on eliminative where some of the controversy lies. We will write a custom essay sample on The Nature and Status of Folk Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now My main focus will be on Paul Churchyard’s views and his arguments against UP, as this will enable me to facilitate an assessment of his criticisms. Subsequent to that I will search for my own view in the defense of UP in the light of its proponents such as Horror and Woodward or Denned. By doing this I will then be able to gauge the plausibility of Churchyard’s criticisms of UP. Folk psychology (UP) is the name given by lamentableness to the common sense understanding of the mind (Mind and Bodies pep). A common sense view which accepts that we all have desires and emotions such as fear, lust, beliefs, desire, pain, pleasure ,love, hate, joy attraction and so forth. These deferent states of being are utilized in what are called propositional attitudes which show intent. An example of a propositional attitude is Brenda ‘believes’ she can win the lottery, Hereford ‘believes’ is the Intentionality in this propositional attitude. The view of UP encapsulated by Paul Churchyard Is that It â€Å"embodies our baseline understanding of the cognitive, affective, and purposive nature of person. Considered as a whole, it constitutes our conception of what a person is†. (Churchyard in Guatemalan, 1994, p. 08) Before we go on to examine Churchyards criticism of UP, I think it would be useful to give a brief overview of the eliminations viewpoint regarding UP. Eliminative materialism (also called eliminative) Is a materialist position in the hilltop’s of mind. Its primary claim is that people’s common-sense understanding of the mind (or folk psychology) Is false and that certain classes of mental states that most people believe in do not exist (Wilkinson, Mind and Bodies pep) Paul M. Churchyard (b. 942) a Canadian-born philosopher is a leading proponent of eliminative; he is a long time critic of UP and the foremost advocate of neuroscience. Churchyards criticism dovetails with the eliminations claim that UP is a false theory â€Å"Eliminative materialism is the thesis that our common-sense inception of psychological phenomena constitutes†(eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes’ Paul M Churchyard Reading 6, Wilkinson, Mind and Bodies p 194). He claims that UP is not only a radically false theory but also an empirical theory by pointing out Its similarities with other theories. He does this by stating how our â€Å"familiar mentalist vocabulary’ is to be understood like other semantic terms. In that the terms used need or in fact do operate by a network of formulate laws like any other theory. An example of how Churchyard employs UP as theory Is found In his hypothesis argument on understanding the minds of others. He says that we can use UP as a hypothetical framework which Works in the main and is reasonable’ to employ (Wilkinson, Mind and Bodies pep). Although Churchyard accepts our everyday use of UP as a reasonable thing to do he still argues forcefully his claim, that UP is a false theory and does this with a three pronged attack: – (a) its ontology is an illusion, (b) It is a stagnant theory and incapable of advance (c) It Is not reducible to neuroscience. (a) Churchyard begins his attack on UP by declaring that It ouch as mental illness; imagination; intelligence differences; sleep issues; motor co- ordination; perceptual illusions and memory, that he claims UP has nothing to say. He includes learning in this critique and with a further assault on UP propositional attitudes, questions where they are stored and how they are learnt to be employed, both vital to UP views on the conception of the mental. However Churchyard does not go as far as to say UP is not true but rather illusionary and that â€Å"UP is at best a highly superficial theory’ (Ibid IPPP up 16) (b) Churchyard argues on historical grounds that The UP story is one of retreat infertility and decadence†(Ibid IPPP IPPP). He gives the example of how early man used UP to relate to their environment in a naive fashion believing that the wind was capable of anger, the moon Jealousy as examples of early intentional attitudes. Therefore backing up his argument that UP along with these historical intentional attitudes has become stagnant and sterile and had to give ground in the face of better theories from the area of empirical science (Wilkinson Mind and Bodies pep). To add further weight to this criticism Churchyard uses Mire Legatos’ terms that â€Å"UP is a stagnant or degenerating research program, and has been for millennia†(Churchyard, Reading 6, Wilkinson, Mind and Bodies, IPPP, up 18). (c) Theoretical reductionism, the process by which one theory is absorbed into another is what Churchyard uses as the main thrust of his argument that UP is probably false as it is not reducible to neuroscience. How UP promises theoretical integration by Churchyard’s opinion is very poor he bashes FPS lack of progress and coherence in relation to natural history and physical sciences. Where he believes there growth in rinsing understanding of man is out performing UP in many respects, pointing to neuroscience breakthroughs in human sensory input and neural activity. Furthermore according to Churchyard, UP is akin to a misfit standing alone looking incapable of synthesis as FPS â€Å"stagnation and explanatory impotence promise little faith†(Ibid IPPP IPPP). Moreover UP will not likely be reflected by neuroscience as it will seem to be antiquated and here he draws a parallel between UP and ‘Aristotelian cosmology. His final and most damming attack to back up his arguments on FPS laziness is that it â€Å"suffers explanatory failures on an epic scale†(Ibid, IPPP, IPPP). I will now go over the main points of Churchyards arguments and challenge their validity and soundness in the light of his main critics and defenders of UP. Churchyards first criticism that there are areas of the mind such as motor co- ordination, sleep and memory which he says are not dealt sufficiently by UP. And implying that its ontology may be false is objected to by a riposte from two American philosophers Horror and Woodward in defense of UP. Firstly on the grounds that to impose demands on any psychological theory accounting for considerable know how when theoretical knowledge is relatively primitive (A fair point given that psychology as a medical discipline has only been practiced about the last one hundred years). Secondly, as Churchyard argues if UP is to be a successful theory the fact it must offer explanations for all the phenomena it lists in Horror and Woodward opinion this argument needs to be treated with skepticism and caution (Horror and Woodward, 1985, up. 00). Finally as Churchyard’s narrowing of FPS definition does not cover retain areas of the mind it is also dismissed, with good argument I think, because cognitive psychology has developed detailed theories on intentional psychologies (UP) Churchyards empirical argument fails to provide a convincing critique on the grounds that the theories outlined are explainable in terms of UP. Churchyards second assault on UP that it is a stagnant theory emplo ying the same mentalist framework as the ancient Greeks. Horror and Woodward have a counter argument they rebut his view by citing the progression in 18th and 20th century literature such as Jane Austin and John Birth. Furthermore bringing their point to bear with great assurance when they point to the modern day skill in appealing to our â€Å"unconscious beliefs and motivations†, in my view borne out when viewing our modern day advertising. Therefore a rebuttal to Churchyards assertion that UP is a stagnant theory, incapable of advance is found to be false (Wilkinson, Mind and Bodies pep). In reply to Churchyards controversial damning conclusion on FPS falseness due to its inability to reduction and that it â€Å"suffers explanatory failures on an epic scale†(Reading 6 IPPP,IPPP), American philosopher Daniel Detente (1942) points out hat eliminations fails to recognize UP as a ‘normative’ theory (not Just a descriptive one). In that it also encapsulates an ‘ideal’ or recommendation on how to proceed as a rational being with a value structure which incorporates social practices, such as greeting, reassuring, that is relevant to everyday existence. A pertinent point made by Denned in that it is not Just crucial not only to our own reason as human beings but that it enables us to act and think rationally and facilitates good social relations. This as can be deduced makes a mockery of Churchyards FPS falseness claims. These thoughts are mirrored by Horror and Woodward that UP although probably not reducible to neuroscience â€Å"Churchyard is Just mistaken to assume that UP must be reducible to neuroscience in order to be compatible with it†(Horror and Woodward, 1985, PEP). The assessment and examination of eliminations views on Folk Psychology with particular regard to Churchyards criticisms and UP defenders crystallites for me the essence of the UP debate, theory or practice? , reality or illusion? , past or future? UP for me is a skill nurtured by the past and in my opinion elegantly defended by Horror and Woodward arguments not only for its continual relevance but its reliance upon contemporary culture implying a growth in its lexicon. Finally Dent’s utter dismissal of the eliminations views that UP left a great deal unexplained. And it is by Dent’s assertion that we need UP to give us a language of reason for both our personal and social behaviors, a real boon to Folk psychology. After defining and outlining both UP and eliminative, we can see some plausible solutions to the controversy with regards to the claims that UP is a false theory, Rutherford that it is illusory, stagnant and non reducible. In my opinion Churchyard’s assertion that UP is a false theory is invalid. As having seen the arguments for criticizing UP I have come to the view that Churchyard’s criticisms of UP can easily be argued against, not because of his limitations of his understanding but because of his not taking into account ‘normative’ values pointed out by Denned. But also invalid on the grounds that at least two to three thousand years in the life of mankind would be in my view absurdly dismissed. And finally if we were all given a behaving like robots making poetry and art nonsense! How to cite The Nature and Status of Folk Psychology, Papers
Saturday, December 7, 2019
The Revolt of 1857 free essay sample
The revolt of 1857 is regarded by many as the First War of Indian Independence. It was after this that the Nationalistic Movement in the country gathered momentum. Emergence of press, development of rapid means of transport and communication, and the impact of the contemporary European movement accelerated the growth of this national sentimence. The practice of racial discrimination by the British in all spheres of life also contributed to the unity among different sections of the society to rise against a common enemy. The Phases of Indian Independence The Indian Nationalist Movement of Indian Independence can be classified into three phases: 1. The Moderate Phase (1885 – 1905) 2. The Extremist Phase (1905 – 1919) 3. The Gandhian Phase (1919 – 1947) The Moderate Phase The Moderates were the most active participants of the freedom struggle during this phase and so the name Moderate Phase. It is also sometimes referred to as the Early Nationalist Phase. Dada Bhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dinshaw Wacha and Surendranath Bannerjee were some of the famous Moderate leaders. Pin It See all 3 photos Moderates Created a Wide Awakening The Moderates were successful in exposing the exploiting character and the evil results of the British policies. This aided them in creating a wide national awakening among the people of the country. They popularized ideas of democracy, civil liberties, secularism, nationalism and trained civilians in the art of political work. Failure of Moderates and Rise of Extremists Even though they were successful in bringing in a nationalistic awakening, they failed to realize the importance of a mass struggle. They also could not realize the true nature of the British and their policies. So the moderates were not able to pose any major threat to the British rule in India. A more action oriented movement which could take extreme measures became the need of the hour. Subsequently there emerged a group of freedom fighters with a whole new set of ideas and principles, The Extremists. Indian National Movement For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and administratively under a single power (the British rule). It introduced a uniform system of law and government. The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal services and the construction of roads and canals facilitated communication among the people. All these brought Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the national movement on an all India basis. The English language played an important role in the growth of nationalism in the country. The English educated Indians, who led the national movement, developed Indian nationalism and organised it. Western education facilitated the spread of the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism. The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national consciousness. The leaders of various organisations like the Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a feeling of regard for and pride in the motherland. A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic policy pursued by the British government in India. The English systematically ruined the Indian trade and native industries. Therefore, economic exploitation by the British was one of the most important causes for the rise of Indian nationalism. The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion between the British and the Indians. The English feeling of racial superiority grew. India as a nation and Indians as individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation and contemptuous treatment. Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India was in the grip of famine. He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian Press. His Arms Act was a means to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these measures created widespread discontent among the Indians. The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature during the Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon. The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between Indian and European judges in courts. This Bill was opposed by the British residents in India. Ultimately the Bill was modified. Thus various factors contributed to the rise of nationalism and the formation of the Indian National Congress The Indian National Congress (1885) Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant in the British Government took the initiative to form an all-India organization. Thus, the Indian National Congress was founded and its first session was held at Bombay in 1885. W. C. Banerjee was its first president. It was attended by 72 delegates from all over India. Persons attending the session belonged to different religious faiths. They discussed the problems of all the Indians irrespective of their religion, caste, language and regions. Thus Indian National Congress from the start was an all-India secular movement embracing every section of Indian society. The second session was held in Calcutta in 1886 and the third in Madras in 1887. The history of the Indian National Movement can be studied in three important phases: (i) The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress continued to be loyal to the British crown. (ii) The years 1906-1916 witnessed- Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant nationalism and the Home Rule Movement. (iii) The period from 1917 to1947 is known as the Gandhian era. Moderate Nationalism The leading figures during the first phase of the National Movement were A. O. Hume, W. C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Badruddin Tyabji, Justice Ranade and G. Subramanya Aiyar. Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian Burke. He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal. He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms. He had convened the Indian National Conference (1883) which merged with the Indian National Congress in l886. G. Subramanya Aiyar preached nationalism through the Madras Mahajana Sabha. He also founded the The Hindu and Swadesamitran. Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man of India. He is regarded as India’s unofficial Ambassador in England. He was the first Indian to become a Member of the British House of Commons. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was regarded as the political guru of Gandhi. In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society to train Indians to dedicate their lives to the cause of the country For a few years the Congress enjoyed the patronage of the British administrators. Between 1885 and 1905, the Congress leaders were moderates. The Moderates had faith in the British justice and goodwill. They were called moderates because they adopted peaceful and constitutional means to achieve their demands. Main Demands of Moderates * Expansion and reform of legislative councils. Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS examination simultaneously in England and in India. * Separation of the judiciary from the executive. More powers for the local bodies. * Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords. * Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty. * Reduction of spending on army. * Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations Me thods of Moderates The Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They were loyal to the British. They looked to England for inspiration and guidance. The Moderates used petitions, resolutions, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets, memorandum and delegations to present their demands. They confined their political activities to the educated classes only. Their aim was to attain political rights and self-government stage by stage. In the beginning, the British Government welcomed the birth of the Indian National Congress. In 1886, Governor General Lord Dufferin gave a tea garden party for the Congress members in Calcutta. The government officials had also attended Congress sessions. With the increase in Congress demands, the government became unfriendly. It encouraged the Muslims to stay away from the Congress. The only demand of the Congress granted by the British was the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892. Achievements of Moderates 1. The Moderates were able to create a wide national awakening among the people. 2. They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and representative institutions. 3. They explained how the British were exploiting Indians. Particularly, Dadabhai Naoroji in his famous book Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India wrote his Drain Theory. He showed how India’s wealth was going away to England in the form of (a) salaries (b)savings (c) pensions (d) payments to British troops in India and (e) profits of the British companies. In fact, the British Government was forced to appoint the Welby Commission, with Dadabhai as the first Indian as its member, to enquire into the matter. 4. Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social reforms. They protested against child marriage and widowhood. 5. The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892
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